In the last two sections of this paper, we have seen that many judgment passages in the New Testament actually relate to the AD 70 fall of Jerusalem, which coincided with the end of the Old Covenant, while other passages describe the ongoing judgment that takes place in this life (e.g., John 3:17-21). The rewards of believers, namely “eonian life” and “the kingdom of God,” are spiritual blessings that we enjoy in our present life (see esp. John 17:3; Rom. 14:17), while the ‘death’ that unbelievers undergo is the state of separation from God which we formerly existed in (Eph. 2:1-5, 12). All rewards and punishments for the righteous and the wicked take place in this life, as the author of Proverbs observed (Prov. 11:31).
But what consequences does this have for the Second Coming and the resurrection of the dead? This is surely a future event, as Jesus has not bodily returned and the dead have not been bodily raised. So will there be a final judgment at this time, despite the fact that the Bible appears to teach that judgment takes place in this life? What will be the ultimate fate of believers and unbelievers?
The Second Coming and Resurrection
During his earthly ministry, Jesus did not speak of his return to earth. Although he spoke of a “coming” of the Son of Man (Matt. 24:27, 30; 26:64), this was the “coming” of the Messiah to God to receive power and glory and a kingdom, as prophesied in Daniel 7:13-14. The disciples of Jesus were not aware of the Second Coming; in fact, despite Jesus’ warnings to them, they did not even believe that he would die, rise again, and ascend to heaven (Matt. 16:21-22; Luke 24:18-27; John 16:16-18). Therefore, when he finally did ascend to heaven, the disciples were told by heavenly messengers:
“Men of Galilee, why do you stand looking up toward heaven? This Jesus, who has been taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven.” (Acts 1:11)
This is the first time that Jesus’ bodily return to earth is described in the New Testament. After this, the disciples began to preach the Second Coming, which Peter declared would take place at “the times of the restitution of all things” (Acts 3:21).
Although Jesus did not preach about the Second Coming during his earthly ministry, he did teach about the resurrection of the dead. Contrary to the Sadducees’ claim that there would be no bodily resurrection, Jesus showed that the Torah implicitly claimed that the patriarchs would live again one day (Mark 12:18-27). According to his teaching, those who are resurrected will be unable to die again (Luke 20:34-36). In the gospel of John, we’re told that this resurrection will occur “on the last day” (6:39, 40, 44, 54; 11:24), which elsewhere is said to coincide with Jesus’ return from heaven (1 Cor. 15:51-55; 1 Thess. 4:13-18). The resurrection of the dead will involve a transformation of our mortal, soulish bodies into immortal, spiritual bodies (1 Cor. 15:35-49; Phil 3:20-21).
The Scope of the Resurrection
As we have seen, the New Testament teaches that there will be a physical resurrection of the dead at the same time as Christ’s bodily return from heaven. But who will be resurrected at this time? The book of Acts tells us that “there will be a resurrection of both the righteous and the unrighteous” (24:15); but will both groups of people be resurrected at the same time, or will only a subset be resurrected at the Second Coming?
According to John 6:39, those who will be raised “on the last day” are all those whom God has given to Jesus. This includes those who believe in Jesus in this life (John 6:40), but it also includes every other member of humanity, because God has given to Jesus “all things” and “all flesh” (John 3:35; 13:3; 17:2; cf. Matt. 11:27; Rom. 14:9). Prior to Jesus’ death, it was only his disciples who had been given to him (John 17:6-9), but it is clear that after his resurrection, he became the Lord of “all flesh” and “the dead and the living” (John 17:2; Rom. 14:9). Indeed, his inheritance includes the wicked and unbelievers, as prophesied by the psalmist (Ps. 2:7-9; cf. Acts 13:33). Because the people who have been given to Jesus will be raised “on the last day,” and all people have been given to Jesus, it follows that all people will be raised at the Second Coming.
This is supported by Paul’s writings, especially 1 Corinthians 15:20-23, in which he states:
But in fact Christ has been raised from the dead, the firstfruits of those who have died. For since death came through a human, the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human; for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ. But each in its own order: Christ the firstfruits, then at his coming those who belong to Christ. Then comes the end...
Although some argue that this passage describes three different stages of resurrection, the evidence does not support this view. Paul refers to Jesus as the firstfruits, [1] which draws upon the typology of harvest in the Old Testament; this only had two stages, the “sheaf of the firstfruits” followed by the rest of the harvest (Lev. 23:9-22). Jesus is the firstfruits of “those who have died” and all who “die in Adam,” so the second stage of the ‘harvest’ of the resurrection includes everyone who has died. [2] Moreover, those who are resurrected “at his coming” are “those who belong to Christ,” which in Paul’s view includes “both the dead and the living” (Rom. 14:9).
The only other place in Paul’s epistles where he describes the resurrection at the Second Coming is 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18. This passage states:
But we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers and sisters, about those who have died, so that you may not grieve as others do who have no hope. For since we believe that Jesus died and rose again, even so, through Jesus, God will bring with him those who have died. For this we declare to you by the word of the Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will by no means precede those who have died.
For the Lord himself, with a cry of command, with the archangel’s call and with the sound of God’s trumpet, will descend from heaven, and the dead in Christ will rise first. Then we who are alive, who are left, will be caught up in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air, and so we will be with the Lord forever. Therefore encourage one another with these words.
The scope of this resurrection is described repeatedly as “those who have died” (or “those who are asleep”), which suggests that all who have died will be raised at that time. Yet in v. 16, most translations say that “the dead in Christ will rise first,” which implies that only dead Christians will be resurrected. Nonetheless, this can also be translated as “the dead will rise in Christ first,” which better fits the context and is grammatically more plausible. [3] Moreover, since this prophecy was meant to comfort the Thessalonians about “those who have died,” were they only concerned about other Christians and not their unbelieving relatives as well? This is quite unlikely, especially since Paul has just exhorted them to have love not only “for one another,” but indeed “for all” (1 Thess. 3:12; cf. 5:15).
In summary, the resurrection at the Second Coming will encompass all members of humanity, not just believers. This is shown by the gospel of John, which states that all who have been given to Jesus will be “raised on the last day” (6:39), and that all people have been given to Jesus (17:2). It is also supported by Paul’s epistles, as he says that “those who belong to Christ” (which includes all people) will be resurrected “at his coming” (1 Cor. 15:20-23; cf. Rom. 14:9), and that “those who have died” will “rise in Christ” when he returns from heaven (1 Thess. 4:13-18).
The Salvation of All
As I have argued at length in many other places, the Bible clearly teaches that all people, not just those who believe in this life, will be saved through Christ’s sacrifice. This is most obviously seen in the writings of Paul, who establishes in his epistles to the Romans and Corinthians that as many people as were condemned by Adam’s sin will also be justified by Jesus’ selfless sacrifice:
But the free gift is not like the trespass. For if the many died through the one man’s trespass, much more surely have the grace of God and the gift in the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, abounded for the many. And the gift is not like the effect of the one man’s sin. For the judgment following one trespass brought condemnation, but the gift following many trespasses brings justification. If, because of the one man’s trespass, death reigned through that one, much more surely will those who receive the abundance of grace and the gift of righteousness reign in life through the one man, Jesus Christ. Therefore just as one man’s trespass led to condemnation for all, so one man’s act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all. For just as through the one man’s disobedience the many were made sinners, so through the one man’s obedience the many will be made righteous. (Rom. 5:15-19)
But in fact Christ has been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have died. For since death came through a human, the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human, for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ. (1 Cor. 15:20-22)
Some avoid this conclusion by arguing that “the many” and “all people” in these passages could refer to a subset of humanity. If Paul had said that “all people” were condemned in Adam while “the many” were justified in Christ, or even vice versa, this might be a plausible interpretation. Instead, he’s careful to establish a comparison between the two, referring to both groups as “the many” or “all people” in the same sentence, showing that it’s the same group (all humanity) in view in both cases.
These aren’t the only passages establishing universal salvation by far. In the famous Carmen Christi, we’re told that one day “every knee will bow... and every tongue will confess, ‘Jesus Christ is Lord’” (Phil. 2:10-11), which is a confession that cannot be made except by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 12:3). Paul says that “all things” that were created, “whether in heaven or on earth,” shall be reconciled to God by the blood of Jesus (Eph. 1:9-10; Col. 1:16-20). God “wills that all people be saved,” and therefore he sent Jesus as the “correspondent ransom on behalf of all” (1 Tim. 2:4-6). He “imprisoned all in disobedience so that he may be merciful to all” (Rom. 11:32). Paul tells us to “insist upon and teach” that God is “the savior of all people, especially of believers” (1 Tim. 4:10-11). [4]
The salvation of all is also taught implicitly throughout the rest of the Scriptures. Many passages tell us that God has the power to control people’s thoughts and desires, including their faith and unbelief; no one comes to Jesus unless it’s willed by the Father. [5] Even if this biblical determinist view is rejected, it follows from God’s omniscience and omnipotence that he knows the circumstances under which each person would come to faith in him, and is able to bring this about. We’re also told that love for all people, even his enemies, is integral to God’s very being and perfection (Matt. 5:43-48; 1 John 4:8). Those whom God loves, he may justly chastise and punish, but he always shows compassion afterward, to the ultimate good of the object of love (Lam. 3:31-33; Heb. 12:6-11; cf. Rom. 13:8-10). Therefore, God wills for all people, even his enemies, to be saved (1 Tim. 2:4).
It follows logically from God’s sovereignty over and love for all people — which are major themes found all across the Bible — that he will cause all people to be saved. [6,7] But when will all people come to faith in God and Christ and be saved? The answer is given by Paul in his discourse on the resurrection:
But each [will be resurrected] in its own order: Christ the firstfruits, then at his coming those who belong to Christ. Then comes the end, when he hands over the kingdom to God the Father, after he has destroyed every ruler and every authority and power. For he must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet. The last enemy to be destroyed is death. For “God has put all things in subjection under his feet.” But when it says, “All things are put in subjection,” it is plain that this does not include the One who put all things in subjection under him. When all things are subjected to him, then the Son himself will also be subjected to the One who put all things in subjection under him, so that God may be all in all...
Look, I will tell you a mystery! We will not all die, but we will all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet. For the trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised imperishable, and we will be changed. For this perishable body must put on imperishability, and this mortal body must put on immortality. When this perishable body puts on imperishability and this mortal body puts on immortality, then the saying that is written will be fulfilled: “Death has been swallowed up in victory.” “Where, O death, is your victory? Where, O death, is your sting?” The sting of death is sin, and the power of sin is the law. But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ. (1 Cor. 15:23-28, 51-57)
Paul says that death will be destroyed at “the end” (Gk: to telos), after every ruler and authority has been abolished, when Jesus finally subjects all things under his feet and gives up the kingdom to the Father. [8] Elsewhere, in his epistle to the Philippians, Paul says, “He will transform the body of our humiliation that it may be conformed to the body of his glory, by the power that also enables him to make all things subject to himself” (Phil. 3:21). Therefore, in making all things (including his enemies) subject to himself, Christ will transform their bodies to be immortal and incorruptible like his.
This will all take place when we are resurrected “at the last trumpet,” at which time both death and its “sting,” which is sin, will be swallowed up in God’s victory through Christ (1 Cor. 15:54-57). Then God will be “all in all” (15:28). If all people will be immortal and incorruptible, with God dwelling in them, and no more ability to sin, what else can this be but the salvation of all people? [9] Indeed, if no one will sin any more after the resurrection, further punishment would be utterly pointless and cruel. God doesn’t punish out of a mere vengeance, but out of a desire for restoration and reconciliation (Lam. 3:31-33; Heb. 12:6-11).
It might be objected to this universalist view that this makes Jesus’ sacrifice pointless. But that’s turning the entire situation on its head. All people will be saved and made immortal, not in spite of Christ, but because of him. The very reason that he died was to “abolish death and bring light and immortality to life” (2 Tim. 1:11). In every passage where he discusses the salvation of all, Paul is clear that it is because of Christ’s sacrifice that this wonderful outcome will take place. Jesus is the only way to the Father, so it would be impossible for all people to be saved except through him (John 14:6). This objection, therefore, makes as little sense as asking what the point of a firefighter’s sacrifice was if he died saving everyone from a burning building. Would Jesus’ sacrifice somehow be more meaningful if he saved only one-tenth of all people?
Judgment on the Last Day
Paul’s teachings about the resurrection of the dead and the salvation of all are clear, and his discourse in 1 Corinthians 15 makes these events simultaneous. Yet there is one passage which speaks of a judgment occurring at the same time as the resurrection:
I do not judge anyone who hears my words and does not keep them, for I came not to judge the world but to save the world. The one who rejects me and does not receive my words has a judge; on the last day the word that I have spoken will serve as judge. (John 12:47-48)
Elsewhere in the gospel of John, “the last day” is when the resurrection of the dead takes place (6:39, 40, 44, 54; 11:24). If there will be a judgment on “the last day,” this threatens our conclusion, based on Paul’s epistles, that all people will be saved at that time. How should we interpret this passage?
First of all, note that even those who hear and do not keep Christ’s words are considered to be part of the “world” that he came to save. These people, along with the rest of those whom God has given Jesus, will be raised up on the last day, and ultimately none of them will be lost (John 6:39; cf. 3:35; 13:3; 17:2; Matt. 11:27; Rom. 14:9). We’re told that those who didn’t keep the words of Jesus in their lifetime will be judged on “the last day,” but we’re not told if this judgment will result in any punishment, whether eternal or limited. Notably, it isn’t Jesus who will judge them at that time, even though he’s the one to whom all judgment has been committed by the Father (John 5:22, 27). Instead, he says, “the word that I have spoken will serve as judge.”
What is “the word” that Jesus spoke? Immediately before this, Jesus told the crowds that he was the one who had been sent by God, the light and savior of the world (John 12:44-47). It is this word that shall “judge” unbelievers on “the last day.” To judge (Gk: krinō) doesn’t always imply punishment, but can also simply mean to determine a course of action, or to deem someone right or wrong. [10] When, on the last day, those who rejected Jesus’ word are resurrected and “come to a knowledge of the truth” (1 Tim. 2:4), that same word will deem them to have been wrong. At that time, “all Israel will be saved,” including those who were disobedient to Jesus’ message in this life (Rom. 11:26, 32). Therefore, this judgment isn’t incompatible with the salvation of all on “the last day”; to the contrary, it will occur only when unbelievers have been saved and realized that they were wrong!
Conclusion
Most Christians believe that, after death, those who didn’t believe in Jesus as Messiah in this life will be hopelessly tortured forever in ‘hell,’ or at the very least annihilated forever. However, the biblical hope is much greater than this dystopian picture in which God abandons most of his creation to destruction. Most of the passages which are interpreted as referring to ‘hell’ (Dan. 12:2; Matt. 5:22, 29-30; 10:28; 13:37-43, 47-50; 18:8-9; 23:33; 25:31-46; Mark 9:43-48; Luke 12:5; John 5:28-29; 2 Thess. 1:5-10; Rev. 14:11; 20:11-15) actually refer to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70, an event of great redemptive-historical significance to the early Christians, as it marked the end of the Old Covenant and the full arrival of the New Covenant, and vindicated the followers of Jesus over other Jewish sects (Matt. 22:1-14; 23:34-38; Heb. 8:13; 9:8-10; 10:8-9; Rev. 18:20-19:9).
Other judgment passages, such as John 3:17-21 and Romans 2:5-10, refer to the present Messianic age, when Jesus reigns over and judges the gentiles (Ps. 2:6-9; Isa. 11:10-12; 42:1-4; Zech. 14:9; Matt. 28:18; Acts 13:33; 17:30-31; 2 Cor. 6:2). Those who follow Jesus have “eonian life,” which is defined as the state of knowing God and Christ (John 17:3); it is more than a mere intellectual knowledge, and involves God and his Son actually coming to dwell in communion with us (John 14:23; 1 John 1:3; 2:24; 3:23-24; 4:12-13; cf. 1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 3:17). We belong to the “kingdom of God” with its spiritual blessings (Rom. 14:17; Col. 1:13). In contrast, those who don’t follow Jesus continue in darkness and death, because they refuse to come to Jesus who is the Light and Life; they are “having no hope and without God in the world” (John 3:36; Rom. 6:16, 21-23; 8:6, 13; 2 Cor. 7:10; Eph. 2:12; etc.).
However, this state will not last forever. At the “times of the restoration of all things,” Jesus will return from heaven (Acts 1:11; 3:21; cf. Rom. 8:20-23). Then all people, including God’s enemies, will be subjected to him by being resurrected into immortal, sinless bodies, and death and sin will be abolished (John 6:39-44; 1 Cor. 15:20-28, 51-57; 1 Thess. 4:13-18; Phil. 3:21). Thus the salvation of all which was secured by Christ’s sacrifice will be effected (Rom. 5:12-19; 11:32; 1 Cor. 15:22; Eph. 1:9-10; Phil. 2:10-11; Col. 1:16-20; 1 Tim. 2:4-6; 4:10). About the eternal state, the Bible says very little, although it may be imperfectly foreshadowed in Revelation 21-22. But we can be sure that God has amazing things planned, not just for a small subset of people, for all of us!
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[1] Contrary to some idiosyncratic readings of this passage, “Christ the firstfruits” cannot refer to the body of Christ without doing violence to the text. The preceding section deals with the importance of Jesus’ bodily resurrection, concluding, “But in fact Christ has been raised from the dead, the firstfruits of those who have died” (1 Cor. 15:20), after which Paul segues into his discussion of the resurrection. Moreover, I’m aware of no place in Paul’s epistles where he uses “Christ” as a metonym for “the body of Christ.”
[2] It may be objected that after describing the resurrection of “those who are Christ’s,” Paul states, “Then comes the end,” which implies that the consummation comes some time after the resurrection. However, the word translated as “then” in v. 23 (Gk: epeita) differs from the word translated as “then” in v. 24 (Gk: eita). The former word indicates a necessary order in time, whereas the latter can be used to describe simultaneous events, as in fact proved by the immediate context (see the Greek of 1 Cor. 15:5-7; cf. Matt 28:16-18; Mark 16:14; Luke 24:33-38; John 20:19-20).
[3] David Konstan and Ilaria Ramelli, “The Syntax of Εν Χριστω in 1 Thessalonians 4:16,” Journal of Biblical Literature 126, no. 3 (2007): 579–93.
[4] Note that “especially” (Gk: malista) carries a sense of specialness, but not exclusivity; see how Paul uses this word elsewhere (Gal. 6:10; Phil. 4:22; 1 Tim. 5:8, 17; 2 Tim. 4:13; Tit. 1:10; Philem. 16), notably in Galatians 6:10, which is extremely similar to 1 Timothy 4:10 in construction and meaning. God is the savior “especially” of believers because he begins to save us from sin in this life.
[5] Exod. 10:1; Deut. 2:30; 30:6; Josh. 11:19-20; Ezra 1:1; 6:22; 7:27; Neh. 7:5; Ps. 33:13-15; 105:23-25; Prov. 16:1, 4, 9; 19:21; 20:24; 21:1; Jer. 10:23; 24:7; Ezek. 36:36-37; Dan. 4:35; Matt. 11:25; 13:10-11; John 1:12-13; 6:44, 64-65; 15:16; Acts 13:48; Rom. 8:28-30; 9:15-18; 11:32; 12:3; 1 Cor. 1:27-28; 3:5-9; Eph. 1:4-5, 11; Phil. 1:29; 2:13; 1 Thess. 1:4; 2 Thess. 2:13; 2 Tim. 1:9; 2:25-26; Heb. 6:1-3; 1 Pet. 2:8; Jude 4.
[6] To put this argument in the form of a deductive syllogism: (1) God has the power to bring all people to faith in him; (2) God wills all people to come to faith in him; (3) thus, God will cause all people to come to faith in him.
[8] Many object to the view that Christ will actually stop reigning and be subjected to God at the end, but Paul couldn’t be clearer on this point. He states that Christ will, at this time, “hand over the kingdom to the God and Father,” that “he will reign until” such a time, and that “the Son himself will be subjected to” God. The idea that the Messiah will stop reigning once all enemies have been subjected to God comes from Psalm 110:1-2, one of the most quoted Messianic prophecies in the New Testament: “Yahweh says to my Lord, ‘Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet. Yahweh shall send the staff of your strength from Zion. Rule in the midst of your enemies!’” The very reason that Jesus now sits at the right hand of God is to subject all to him; to say that Jesus will never stop reigning is to say that he will ultimately fail in the purpose for which he was sent. And of course, Jesus can only “rule in the midst of [his] enemies” as long as there are enemies.
[9] It would be impossible for anyone to resist coming to God once they meet him face-to-face. Although I disagree with Thomas Aquinas on many things, he is correct when he states, “if the will be offered an object which is good universally and from every point of view, the will tends to it of necessity, if it wills anything at all; since it cannot will the opposite... consequently, that good alone which is perfect and lacking in nothing, is such a good that the will cannot not-will it: and this is Happiness“ (Summa Theologica II.I.10.2). Sin is merely the result of an impaired will that can't see what is truly good for itself, so knowing the truth sets us free from sin (cf. John 8:31-34). Thus, when all our mental defects are taken away at the resurrection, we'll have no more propensity to sin.
[10] Luke 7:43; 12:57; John 7:24; 8:15; Acts 3:13; 4:19; 13:46; 15:19; 16:4, 15; 20:16; 21:25; 25:25; 26:8; 27:1; Rom. 2:3; 14:5, 13; 1 Cor. 2:2; 7:37; 11:13; 2 Cor. 2:1; 5:14; Tit. 3:12.
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