In my post from last week, in which I reviewed and rebutted the arguments in Robert Bowman Jr. and J. Ed. Komoszewski’s book Putting Jesus in His Place: The Case for the Deity of Christ, I was unfortunately unable to get to some of their arguments for lack of space. One of the main arguments that I didn’t get to rebut was the argument from the NT application of OT Yahweh texts to Jesus. This is often used as a slam-dunk argument by trinitarians; after all, if the authors of the New Testament directly quoted biblical texts about Yahweh and re-applied them to Jesus, doesn’t this mean that Jesus is Yahweh? In this blog post, I will be explaining the unitarian interpretation of OT Yahweh texts applied to Jesus.
How do the New Testament authors quote the Old Testament?
One fact that is often forgotten in this debate is how loosely the authors of the New Testament quote the Old Testament. This is especially the case when it comes to Messianic prophecies; many of the prophecies cited in the New Testament to apply to Jesus originally referred to an individual or entity long before Jesus. One of the most famous examples of this is Matthew 2:14-15:
Then Joseph got up, took the child and his mother at night, and went to Egypt and remained there until the death of Herod. This was to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the prophet, “Out of Egypt I have called My son.” [Hosea 11:1]
The prophecy quoted here, Hosea 11:1, clearly referred to Israel in its original context: “When Israel was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I have called My son.”
How did ancient Jewish authors use ‘Yahweh texts’?
We’ve already seen that the authors of the New Testament frequently changed the referent of Old Testament passages to apply them to more current people and events. But did they do the same for texts about Yahweh, the God of Israel, or was this considered blasphemous? It must not have been considered sacrilegious, because there are numerous ancient Jewish texts that re-applied passages about God to other referents. Typically, this was only done for those considered agents of Yahweh.
A major example of this re-use of ‘Yahweh texts’ is from the Dead Sea Scrolls of the Qumran community, specifically, the scroll labeled 11QMelch. This scroll took passages from the Psalms and Isaiah about God and re-applied them to Melchizedek, whom the Qumran community believed to be a celestial being that God would use to judge all people. 11QMelch states:
It is the time for the “year of the favor of” Melchizedek [Isa. 61:2] and of his armies, the nation of the saints of God, of the rule of judgment, as it is written about him in the songs of David, who said, “God will stand in the assembly of God, in the midst of the gods he judges.” [Psa. 82:1] And about him he said, “And above it, to the heights, return: God will judge the peoples.” [Psa. 7:8, 9]
As for what he said, “How long will you judge unjustly and show partiality to the wicked?” [Psa. 82:2] Its interpretation concerns Belial and the spirits of his lot, who […] turning aside from the commandments of God to commit evil. But, Melchizedek will carry out the vengeance of God’s judgments.
The author of 11QMelch obviously did not believe that Melchizedek was God Himself, but that God would empower Melchizedek to carry out judgment in the last days. This author quoted Isaiah 61:2, which talks about the “year of the favor of Yahweh,” but replaced Yahweh’s name with Melchizedek’s. Likewise, he interpreted Psalm 82 (which is about God judging celestial beings) and Psalm 7 (which talks about Yahweh’s judgment) to refer to Melchizedek. This shows that at least some ancient Jewish authors had no qualms about applying Yahweh texts to agents of God.
Many other Yahweh texts are used to refer to non-God entities in Jewish midrash. One example is Psalm 68:18, which states about Yahweh, “You have ascended on high and led captive the captives, You have received gifts from men”. Many ancient Jewish texts, rather than applying this to God, applied it to Moses by allegorically interpreting it as Moses’ ascent to Mt. Sinai. [5] This also happens to be one of the Yahweh texts applied to Jesus (Eph. 4:8). Another example is Isaiah 59:20, which says about Yahweh, “The Redeemer will come to Zion”; this is interpreted in b. Sanhedrin 98b as referring to the Messiah, and again by Paul as referring to Jesus (Rom. 11:26-27).
There are several other examples of Yahweh texts that are sometimes, but not always, applied to non-God entities in ancient Jewish literature. For example, Deuteronomy 32:43 states, “Let all the angels of God worship Him.” This was applied to Yahweh in Targum Neofiti, but in other texts (Targum Onqelos and the Masoretic text) it was taken to refer to God’s people instead. This was applied to Jesus in Hebrews 1:6. Isaiah 60:1-2 says, “Arise, shine, for your light has come and the glory of Yahweh has risen upon you.” Most ancient Jewish texts apply this to Yahweh in line with what the text actually says, but two texts re-interpret “the glory of Yahweh” as “the light of the Messiah.” [6] Paul alludes to this passage when he says, “Awake, sleeper... and Christ will shine on you” (Eph. 5:14).
Finally, one last Yahweh text which is applied to a non-God entity in Jewish midrash is Psalm 102:25-27. Whereas the Masoretic Hebrew text has the Davidic king speaking to God about His creation of the heavens and the earth, the Septuagint (LXX) replaces “I said” with “He answered him,” thus changing this passage into Yahweh speaking to another person about their creation of the heavens and the earth! [7] This may seem absurd, since the Old Testament is clear that God alone created the heavens and the earth (see esp. Isa. 44:24). However, in Jewish midrash, the Messiah was credited with a role in creation, because the spirit of Wisdom given to the Messiah was thought to be the same spirit involved in creation in Genesis 1:2. [8] Similar reasoning may have been involved in the LXX rendering of Psalm 102:25-27, as well as Hebrews 1:10-12 which quotes Psalm 102:25-27 (LXX) in reference to Jesus.
Yahweh texts and Jesus in the New Testament
We’ve now seen how some Yahweh texts were interpreted in Jewish midrash, and how these methods of allegorical interpretation were also used by the authors of the New Testament. But are all of the Yahweh texts applied to Jesus in the New Testament allegorical, or were they intended to show that Jesus is actually Yahweh Himself? Let’s examine each of these passages in turn. Five of them were already mentioned above as being used midrashically in other Jewish texts, so we won’t cover those in this section.
The first Yahweh text applied to Jesus in the New Testament is Isaiah 40:3: “The voice of one crying in the wilderness, ‘Prepare the way of Yahweh, make straight in the desert a highway for our God.’” This is quoted in Matt. 3:3, Mark 1:3, and Luke 3:4, in reference to John the Baptist and Jesus. Since this is a Yahweh text applied to Jesus in the very first gospel (Mark), it’s sometimes thought to prove that the earliest Christians already believed that Jesus was Yahweh. However, NT scholar J. R. Daniel Kirk has noted that Mark actually modifies this verse and combines it with another Old Testament quotation (Exod. 23:20), thus changing the meaning of the text: [9]
...as it is written in Isaiah the prophet, “I [God] will send My messenger [John] ahead of you [Jesus], who will prepare your [Jesus’] way” — “a voice of one [John] crying in the wilderness, ‘Prepare the way of the Lord [Jesus], make straight his [Jesus’] paths.’” (Mark 1:2-3)
By adding in Exodus 23:20, Mark makes this about three people (God, Jesus, and John), instead of just two (God and His messenger). Furthermore, when quoting Isa. 40:3, Mark deliberately omits “our God,” replacing it with just “him,” which is difficult to explain if Mark was actually trying to say that Jesus is God. Therefore, this should be taken as an allegorical application of Isa. 40:3, rather than a declaration of Jesus’ deity.
Another Yahweh text applied to Jesus is Zechariah 12:10, in which God says that “they will look upon Me, the one whom they have pierced, and they will mourn for him [sic] as one mourns for an only child”. This is applied to Jesus in John 19:37 and Revelation 1:7. However, in both cases this passage is quoted as saying, “They will look upon him whom they pierced.” For this reason, and because of the pronoun discrepancy in Zech. 12:10, some commentators have argued that the original Hebrew text referred to “him whom they pierced.” [10] Even if this isn’t the case, the fact that the text has been changed in the NT quotation implies that this is a midrashic reading, not a literal reading.
The next Yahweh text applied to Jesus is Joel 2:32, which states, “everyone who calls upon the name of Yahweh shall be saved.” In the original context, this passage is about Israelites in Jerusalem being saved during the Day of the Lord. However, in Romans 10:9-13, Paul re-applies this passage to mean that everyone, Jew or Gentile, can be saved by calling on the name of “the Lord” (Jesus). Since this is not the original meaning of the passage, we can infer that Paul applying a midrashic interpretation, and we’re not meant to conclude that Jesus is Yahweh.
Another Yahweh text is Isaiah 45:23, in which Yahweh swears that “every knee will bow to Me and every tongue will swear allegiance to God.” This is alluded to in Philippians 2:9-11, in which Paul says:
Therefore God highly exalted him and gave him the name above every other name, so that at the name of Jesus every knee will bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God, the Father.
Many trinitarians believe that the application of Isa. 45:23 to Jesus proves that he is Yahweh Himself, but the context doesn’t support this. Paul says that Jesus deserves these honors because he was given God’s name, and that this is ultimately to the glory of God, the Father. Based on this, it’s most likely that Paul is applying this Yahweh text to Jesus as an agent of God, just as various Yahweh texts were applied to Melchizedek in 11QMelch.
The next Yahweh text is Jeremiah 9:24:
“Let the one who boasts boast in this, that they understand and know Me, that I am Yahweh, exercising lovingkindness, judgment, and righteousness in the earth, for in these things I delight,” says Yahweh.
Paul applies this to Jesus in 1 Corinthians 1:31 and 2 Corinthians 10:17. However, he shortens it to “Let the one who boasts boast in the Lord [Jesus],” whereas the original passage talks about boasting in Yahweh’s attributes like lovingkindness and righteousness. In the previous verse, Paul stated that Jesus has become the embodiment of God’s attributes like wisdom, righteousness, and sanctification (1 Cor. 1:30). Therefore, by citing 1 Corinthians 1:31, Paul isn’t equating Jesus with Yahweh Himself, but with Yahweh’s attributes of lovingkindness, judgment, and righteousness.
The last Yahweh text applied to Jesus in the New Testament is Isaiah 8:12-13, in which God says to the prophet Isaiah, “Do not call conspiracy that which these people call conspiracy, and do not fear what they fear, or be in dread. But you shall regard Yahweh of hosts as holy”. In context, this passage is about not fearing Judah’s enemies. 1 Peter 3:14-15 states, “But even if you suffer for what is right, you are blessed. Do not fear them or be in dread, but regard Christ the Lord as holy in your hearts.” Clearly, this passage is alluding to Isa. 8:12-13, but the meaning is changed from “Do not fear what they fear” (Judah’s enemies) to “Do not fear them” (persecutors). Since this is a midrashic interpretation, the point isn’t to equate Jesus with Yahweh, but simply that we should trust Jesus rather than fear persecution.
In summary, none of the Yahweh texts applied to Jesus in the New Testament actually imply that he is Yahweh Himself. Five of them are applied to non-God entities in other ancient Jewish texts (Deut. 32:43; Psa. 68:18; 102:25-27; Isa. 59:20; 60:1-2). The meanings of five other Yahweh texts have been changed in the New Testament, which means that these texts are being interpreted midrashically, and not indicating that Jesus is Yahweh (Isa. 8:12-13; 40:3; Jer. 9:24; Joel 2:32; Zech. 12:10). One last Yahweh text, Isa. 45:23, is applied to Jesus in a context where it is clear that he is given this privilege as an exalted agent of Yahweh (Phil. 2:9-11).
Conclusion
Many trinitarians claim that because OT Yahweh texts are applied to Jesus in the NT, the authors of the NT must have believed that he was God Himself. This is one of the primary arguments for ‘early high Christology’ (the view that the earliest Christians believed Jesus was God). However, in other Jewish texts from the same time as the NT, Yahweh texts are applied to non-God entities, either because those entities are agents of God or because a midrashic interpretation is being applied. The NT also frequently uses Jewish midrash to interpret OT passages, and as it happens, this pertains to all of the Yahweh texts applied to Jesus. [11] In contrast, the Father is repeatedly the subject of Yahweh texts that are not interpreted midrashically (e.g., Mark 12:29-30). Therefore, the application of Yahweh texts in the NT is perfectly consistent with unitarian Christian belief.
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[1] See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardes_(exegesis).
[2] The Hebrew text of Isaiah 7:14 states that the mother of the child was an almah, which simply means “young woman,” whereas the Greek translation in the Septuagint (which was used by the New Testament authors) refers to a parthenos (“virgin”).
[3] For example, see Psalm 2:7 in Acts 13:33, Psalm 22 in the crucifixion accounts of all four gospels, Psalm 41:9 in John 13:18, and Psalm 69:9 in John 2:17; as a counter-example, see Psalm 110:1, which was written in the third person and is widely considered to be a true Messianic prophecy.
[4] For example, see Hosea 1:10 and 2:23 in Romans 9:24-26; Deut 25:4 in 1 Cor. 9:9-10; 2 Sam. 7:14 in 2 Cor. 6:16-18; and Gen. 2:24 in Eph. 5:29-32.
[5] Targum Psalms 68.19; Ruth Rab. 2.3; Pesiqta Rab. 20.4; Bavli Shabbat 89a; Exodus Rab. 28.1.
[6] b. Sanhedrin 99a; Pesiqta Rabbati 36.2.
[7] B. W. Bacon, “Heb I, 10-12 and the Septuagint Rendering of Ps 102, 23,” ZNtW 3 (1902): 280-285; L. D. Hurst, “The Christology of Hebrews 1 and 2,” in The Glory of Christ in the New Testament, eds. L. D. Hurst and N. T. Wright (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1987), 160-162.
[8] Genesis Rab. 2.4 equates the spirit of God which was involved in creation in Genesis 1:2 with “the spirit of King Messiah,” based on an allegorical interpretation of Isaiah 11:2; see also Midrash Tanhuma, Toledot 11, which credits the patriarch Jacob with creation by allegorically interpreting Jeremiah 10:16a.
[9] J. R. Daniel Kirk, A Man Attested by God: The Human Jesus of the Synoptic Gospels (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2016).
[10] Carol L. Myers and Eric M. Myers, Zechariah 9–14, Anchor Bible Series 25C (New York: Doubleday, 1993), 336.
[11] With the sole exception of Isa. 45:23, which is applied to Jesus in Phil. 2:9-11 by virtue of his being the human agent of God.
Over the past year and a half, I’ve rebutted many scriptural arguments for the deity of Christ — the belief that Jesus, the Messiah, is (or is a part of) the one true God, Yahweh. These arguments generally boil down to the claim that the Bible states that Jesus has the unique attributes of God and/or does things that only God can do. Two trinitarian scholars, Robert Bowman Jr. and J. Ed Komoszewski, published a book that compiles many or all of these arguments, thereby (according to them) proving beyond a doubt that the “big picture” of the New Testament is that Jesus is God, even if there is no single verse or passage that proves it by itself. [1] But is this true? In this blog post, I’ll be reviewing their book in an attempt to show that the biblical teaching about Jesus is not that he is God himself, but that he is the uniquely empowered human Messiah and Son of God.
Does Jesus share the Honors due God alone?
In their book, Bowman and Komoszewski use the acronym HANDS, which stands for Honors, Attributes, Names, Deeds, and Seat, to classify the attributes applied to Jesus which they claim belong to God alone. They begin by listing the Honors applied to both Jesus and God, starting with John 5:23:
...so that all may honor the Son just as they honor the Father. Whoever does not honor the Son does not honor the Father, who sent him.
Quite rightly, they point out that in monotheistic Jewish culture, it was considered irreverent to honor any creature with the same honor due to God. They conclude that in order for Jesus to be honored in the same way as God, without dishonoring God, he must be God.
However, this ignores another aspect of ancient Jewish culture, which is the concept of agency, as expressed in the saying, “A man’s agent is [to be regarded] as himself.” [2] This principle can also be found in the New Testament itself (e.g., Matt. 10:40; John 12:44). As the uniquely empowered agent who was sent by God, Jesus deserves honor just as if he was God, regardless of whether he is really God. Indeed, the context of John 5:23 is all about how Jesus was sent and empowered by God. In v. 19, Jesus states that he can do nothing apart from the Father who sent him; in vv. 26-27, Jesus states that God gave him the authority to resurrect and judge; in vv. 43-44, Jesus states that he comes in his Father’s name, and refers to the Father as “the only God.” Therefore, the point of this passage is to show that Jesus was sent and empowered by God, not that he is God, and John 5:23 must be understood in this context.
Next, the authors argue that doxologies and worship are given to Jesus in the New Testament, and worship is due only to God (citing Rev. 19:10), therefore the Bible teaches that Jesus is God. However, it’s simply not true that worship is due only to God, though this is a common assumption. The Greek verb proskuneo and its Hebrew equivalent shachah, which are used to describe the worship of God and Jesus, are also used to describe the worship of Joseph, Judah, Jethro, an angel of Yahweh, Boaz, king Saul, Samuel, Joab, king David, Bathsheba, king Solomon, Elisha, king Joash, the city of Jerusalem, and even Christians. [3]
This is especially true in the case of kings David and Solomon, who are worshipped in the same context as God. [4] The only prohibitions against worship are against idols, demons, and in one case, “fellow servants.” [5] However, worship of a superior (human or divine) is not prohibited anywhere in Scripture. Therefore, when the Bible states that Jesus is (and should be) worshipped, this doesn’t mean that he is worshipped as God. Rather, he is explicitly worshipped as God’s son and firstborn (Matt. 14:33; Heb. 1:6). Since Jesus has now been exalted to a position second only to God himself, he is certainly deserving of worship; not because he is God, but because he died for our salvation (Rev. 5:9-12; cf. Rev. 4:9-11).
For their next argument, Bowman and Komoszewski point to several New Testament passages in which Jesus is prayed to (Acts 1:24-25; 7:59-60; 2 Cor. 12:8-9; Rev. 22:20-21). They correctly point out that praying to idols is expressly forbidden, and God is described as “he who hears prayer” in the Old Testament (Psa. 65:2; Isa. 44:17; 45:20). However, this is just as fallacious as their worship argument. Just because praying to false gods is forbidden doesn’t mean that only God can be prayed to. If God so chooses to raise a very unique human to a position of authority over the entire cosmos, why should we not be able to talk to him and make requests to him? Since there is nothing in the Bible to preclude this, this argument is simply not scriptural.
Finally, the last Honors of God that are attributed to Jesus are hymn-singing and faith. Again, the authors quite rightly point out that Jesus is given these honors, and that they are also given to God, but this argument flounders on the claim that God alone deserves these honors. Just as hymns are sung to Jesus in the New Testament (Eph. 5:19; Rev. 5:9-10), at least one hymn was sung to the human Davidic king in the Old Testament (Psa. 45). Jesus is the Messiah, the greatest Davidic king, so of course he also deserves this honor, whether or not he is God. Likewise, just as people are exhorted to put their faith in Jesus in the New Testament, people in the Old Testament put their faith in other agents of God like Moses (Exod. 14:31). Jesus is not to be believed in as God, but as God’s Messiah, as shown by the fact that he himself stated, “You believe in God; believe also in me” (John 14:1).
Does Jesus share God’s unique Attributes?
The authors next try to show that Jesus has many of the Attributes that belong to God alone. Before diving into this section, it needs to be said that in order to prove that Jesus is God, it’s not enough to show that he has some or even most of God’s attributes; he has to have all of God’s attributes. Otherwise, he wouldn’t be God. But this is quite difficult to demonstrate, because Jesus explicitly denies at least one of God’s attributes, omnipotence, by saying that he does not know the time of the Day of the Lord (Mark 13:32). Likewise, two other attributes of God, omnipotence and essential goodness, are incompatible with the clear New Testament teaching that Jesus was tempted (Mark 1:13; Heb. 2:18; 4:15; cf. Jas. 1:13).
So how do Bowman and Komoszewski attempt to show that Jesus has the unique Attributes of God? First, they point to Colossians 2:9, which states that “in him all the fullness of Godhood dwells bodily.” This, they claim, shows that everything that defines God can also be found in Jesus. However, as I argued in another post, this could just as easily be understood as referring to the fact that Jesus was given God’s spirit without measure (John 3:34). Many passages state that God was in Christ working miracles (e.g., Acts 2:22; 2 Cor. 5:19), and Col. 2:9 is likely saying the same thing. This is also supported by Col. 1:19, which states that the Father was pleased to cause his fullness to dwell in Jesus.
They next point to passages which state that Jesus is the image of God and fully reveals him. [6] This certainly means that Jesus has many of the attributes of God, but does it mean that Jesus is him and has all of his attributes? Despite the authors’ confidence, it’s not at all clear that this is the case. There is nothing in Scripture that tells us that a human being, endowed with many of God’s attributes in order to perfectly reveal him to us more than any other prophet, could not be “the image of God.” In fact, it seems strange that God himself would be called “the image of God,” rather than simply God; how can an image of a thing be identical to the thing itself? The hidden premise in this argument is therefore not well-motivated, and the argument should be rejected.
In the next two chapters, Bowman and Komoszewski cite an impressive number of passages which they claim prove that Christ existed before his human birth: (in order of citation) Phil. 2:5-7; Matt. 9:13; 20:28; Luke 4:43; 12:49, 51; 19:10; Gal. 4:4-6; Rom. 8:3; John 8:42; 10:36; 13:3; 16:28; Matt. 23:37; John 8:58; 12:37-41; Jude 5; John 1:1; and Heb. 1:10-12. I’ve already dealt with most of these specific passages in my lengthy refutation of every trinitarian proof-text. Many of these passages state that Jesus was “sent” by God for a specific purpose, which the authors assert shows that he came from heaven. However, this same motif appears in the statements of Old Testament prophets, who were obviously not sent from heaven. [7] But in any case, many (perhaps even most) unitarians believe that Jesus existed before his human birth; this doesn’t mean that he is God himself.
Next, the authors argue that Christ is uncreated, pointing to passages that state that he created “all things” (e.g., Col. 1:16). They point out that if all things were created through Christ, he himself cannot be created. This misses the fact that the “all things” created through Jesus encompass the new creation, not the original creation (2 Cor. 5:17-18). Quite convincingly, however, they demonstrate that the prooftexts claimed by Arians to show that Jesus was the first creation actually refer to his pre-eminence over all creation (Col. 1:15; Rev. 3:14). Rather than being the first created being, the point at which Jesus was created was at his human birth, which is described as “the genesis of Jesus the Messiah” (Matt. 1:18).
They next argue that Jesus is immutable, based on Heb. 13:8, which says that he is “the same yesterday and today and forever.” If understood as ontological immutability, this would contradict the gospel accounts, which state that Jesus grew, became hungry, tired, and most importantly, died. Rather, the context of Heb. 13:8 regards the security of our salvation and the gospel message, which is safe because Jesus is always the same — not ontologically, but morally. He will never go back on his promises.
Finally, Bowman and Komoszewski try to show that Jesus has all of God’s ‘perfect being’ attributes, which are omnipotence, omnipresence, and omniscience. Again, however, this contradicts the clear teachings of the gospel accounts, which state in no uncertain terms that Jesus’ power was given to him by God (e.g., John 5:19; Acts 2:22), meaning that he is not essentially omnipotent. Likewise, they indicate that there were at least a few things Jesus didn’t know, which is incompatible with omniscience (Luke 8:45-46; Mark 13:32). The authors make a lot of the fact that Jesus repeatedly displayed knowledge of others’ thoughts, but this ability was given to him by God (John 16:30), just as it was given to other human prophets. [8]
In summary, there are certain attributes of God that Jesus doesn’t have, such as immutability, omnipotence, omniscience, and essential immortality. This means that Jesus cannot be God himself, because in order to be God, he would need to possess all of God’s attributes. But this doesn’t mean that Jesus doesn’t have many of the attributes of God; he most certainly does. Most importantly, he has the love of God, which is demonstrated in the fact that he died while we were still sinners (Rom. 5:8; 8:39).
Does Jesus share the Names of God?
The next section of the book is devoted to arguing that Jesus has the Names and titles of God, and therefore that he is God. First, the authors point out that Jesus’ name holds an incredible importance in the life of a believer. Christians perform miracles in his name, are baptized in his name, receive salvation in his name, suffer for his name; as Paul says, we are to “do all things in the name of the Lord Jesus” (Col. 3:17). How can the name of a ‘mere man’ be exalted to such an extent? Surely this means that he has the name of God? Again, this argument sneaks in a hidden premise that is not scriptural. There is nothing in the Bible that tells us that God cannot choose to exalt a human to this level. Instead, we read that God chose to exalt Jesus by giving him “the name that is above every name,” because of his obedience unto death (Phil. 2:8-9).
In the next chapter, Bowman and Komoszewski point to many passages which they claim apply the title “God” to the Messiah Jesus: namely, Isa. 7:14; 9:6; John 1:1, 18; 20:28; Acts 20:28; Rom. 9:5; Titus 2:13; Heb. 1:8; and 2 Pet. 1:1. To their credit, they admit that nearly all passages have textual or contextual ambiguities, and the only passages that seem absolutely clear in calling Jesus “God” are John 1:1; John 20:28; and Hebrews 1:8. This is generally in agreement with the findings of other trinitarian scholars. [9] Setting aside John 1:1 for the moment, which I’ve dealt with in other blog posts, there are two texts which unambiguously call Jesus “God” (John 20:28; Heb. 1:8).
Although it may seem strange in the modern day, since we only refer to Yahweh as “God”, in the Bible the empowered agents of God could also be called by the title “God” (Heb: elohim; Gk: theos). For example, Moses is said to be “God [elohim] to the pharaoh” in Exod. 7:1, the human Davidic king is called “God” (elohim) in Psa. 45:6, and human judges are called “gods” (elohim) in Psa. 82:6. Jesus himself makes the point in John 10:34-36 that ‘mere’ humans can be called gods (theoi), proving to the Pharisees that it’s not blasphemous for him to call himself “Son of God.” Therefore, the fact that Jesus is called “God” two times in the New Testament is not proof that he is Yahweh himself, especially compared to the fact that the Father is straightforwardly called God hundreds of times. And in fact, in the context of both instances where Jesus is called “God,” the Father is said to be Jesus’ God, which precludes Jesus from being the Most High God (John 20:17; Heb. 1:9).
Next, the authors argue that because Jesus is consistently called “Lord” in the New Testament, and “Lord” (kurios) is the Greek rendering of God’s Hebrew name Yahweh, Jesus is Yahweh. It’s true that “Lord” (kurios) is how the Septuagint rendered the Tetragrammaton (YHWH), but the word kurios was also used to refer to human lords. A crucial text for understanding Jesus’ title “Lord” in the New Testament is Psalm 110:1:
Yahweh said to my lord [adoni], “Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies your footstool.”
This verse is quoted or alluded to no less than 20 times in reference to Jesus. [10] Crucially, however, the original Hebrew text refers to the Messiah as adon, a title for a human lord which is never used in reference to Yahweh throughout the Old Testament. The title kurios in reference to Jesus, then, describes him as a (uniquely exalted) human Lord. Furthermore, the New Testament actually states that God made Jesus Lord, and that Jesus became Lord because of his obedience unto death (Acts 2:36; Rom. 14:9; Phil. 2:8-11), which doesn’t make sense if “Lord” in this context is understood as “Yahweh.”
Finally, Bowman and Komoszewski argue that because Jesus is given certain titles that belong to God in the Old Testament, he must be God. They provide the examples of “Bridegroom,” “Savior,” and “Alpha and Omega.” It’s true that these titles are applied to God in the Old Testament, and to both Jesus and God in the New Testament. But does this prove that Jesus is God? Again, in order to be valid, this argument needs to add another premise: that these titles can only be used by God. This premise is not well-motivated scripturally, because there is nothing in the Bible that tells us that God cannot choose to exalt a human being to receive these titles. In fact, it tells us that God did exalt a human being, Jesus, to receive his own name (Phil. 2:9-11).
Does Jesus share in the Deeds that God alone does?
The penultimate section of the book argues that Jesus performs the Deeds that uniquely belong to God. Typically, trinitarians will point to Mark 2:7 as an argument that Jesus does things (forgive sins) that only God can do, but thankfully, Bowman and Komoszewski don’t make this fallacious argument. Instead, they begin by arguing that Jesus created the universe, and since God created the universe alone (Isa. 44:24), Jesus must be God. To make their point, they cite John 1:3, 10; 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:16; and Heb. 1:2. However, setting aside the prologue of John which is a unique case (since it refers to God’s word, not Jesus), all of these verses are talking about the new creation.
To understand why I’m saying this, compare the similarities between Col. 1:16 and 2 Cor. 5:17-18, which is unambiguously talking about the new creation:
For in him were created all things in the heavens and on the earth and under the earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or rulers or authorities; all things through him and for him were created. (Col. 1:16)
Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old things have passed away; behold, the new has become. And all things are from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ (2 Cor. 5:17-18)
Both of these passages talk about a creation of all things in and through Christ. Therefore, they likely refer to the same event, which is the new creation in Christ. Similarly, 1 Cor. 8:6 states that “all things” are “through Christ.” Heb. 1:2 says that God made or prepared (poieō) the ages through Jesus. Since the first few chapters of Hebrews are about the coming world and ages (see esp. Heb. 2:5), and we know that Jesus would be ruling in the coming ages (Luke 1:33), this is probably also referring to the future ages, and not the original creation of the universe. Since there are no clear scriptural grounds to say that Christ was involved in the original creation — rather, this was a work of the Father — this argument is not sound. [11]
Next, the authors make the argument that Jesus sustains the universe (Col. 1:17; Heb. 1:3) and has power over nature, so he must be God. The problem with this argument is that there is nothing in the Bible that tells us God cannot exalt a human to this position, unlike the original creation, which the Bible does tell us that God did alone. According to the Old Testament and other Jewish literature, God’s Wisdom sustains the universe (e.g., Wisdom 1:6-7), and the human Jesus became the embodiment of God’s Wisdom for us (1 Cor. 1:30), so it makes sense that he now sustains the universe. Furthermore, God has given other exalted humans, most notably Adam and David, power to control nature. [12] Therefore, the fact that Jesus has the power to sustain the universe and control nature shows that he is an incredibly exalted human, but not that he is God himself.
Bowman and Komoszewski next argue that Jesus’ famous statement, “I am the way, the truth, and the life” (John 14:6), proves that he is God. Quite rightly, they state that God is also described as the way to salvation and the giver of life. Also correctly, they point out that no other human in the Bible is described in this way. However, like their argument from Jesus’ sustaining the universe, this ignores Wisdom Christology, which is a crucial part of New Testament Christology. God’s Wisdom is also described as the way, the truth, and the life (Prov. 3:17-22; 8:7, 32-35). Jesus, unlike any other human in the Bible, was given the great privilege of becoming the very embodiment of God’s Wisdom (John 1:14; 1 Cor. 1:24, 30). Therefore, he can rightly call himself the way, the truth, and the life, because he is the true way to life, as the embodiment of God’s Wisdom.
Finally, the last argument in this section of the book is that Jesus is the judge, but God is the only one who can judge (Jas. 4:12), therefore Jesus must be God. The most striking example of this is Rom. 14:10, which says that “we will all stand before the judgment seat of God,” compared with 1 Cor. 5:10, which says the same thing but swaps “Christ” for “God.” Doesn’t this prove that Christ is God? Not exactly, because the human Davidic kings of the Old Testament like Solomon were also given the privilege to sit on God’s judgement seat over Israel (2 Chron. 9:8; Psa. 72:1-2). How much more is Jesus, who was exalted over the whole universe, given the privilege to judge the whole universe! Indeed, Jesus himself tells us that God gave him the ability to judge (John 5:22, 27), and Paul tells us that God “has fixed a day on which he will judge the world in righteousness through a man whom he has appointed“ (Acts 17:31). Thus, this doesn’t prove that Jesus is God, but a human who has been highly exalted by God.
Does Jesus share the Seat of God’s throne?
The simple answer to the question of this final section is yes. Jesus does share the seat of God’s throne, according to numerous passages in the New Testament. [13] Furthermore, as the authors of the book point out, the Bible does tell us that Jesus has been exalted to rule over all things, which is a privilege formerly belonging to God alone (Matt. 28:18; 1 Cor. 15:27; Eph. 1:22; Phil. 2:9-11; Heb. 2:8-9). But the fact is that Jesus was given this position because of his death and resurrection (Acts 2:36; Rom. 14:10; Phil. 2:8-11; Heb. 1:3-4; Rev. 5:9-12), which precludes him from being Yahweh God, who has always and will always have authority over all things (Psa. 90:1-2).
To try and grapple with this fact, the authors argue that Jesus lost this position when he became human, by becoming obedient and subservient to God the Father, but regained it after his resurrection. However, this ignores the main point, which is that God essentially has authority over all creation; he could not lose it at any point, neither could he regain it. Furthermore, John 7:39 explicitly tells us that Jesus had not been glorified before his ministry.
Another criticism of this line of reasoning that Bowman and Komoszewski raise is that there is no parallel to a ‘mere’ human being exalted over all things in other Jewish literature. But even if this is true, which I would dispute [14], why should God’s actions be confined to only things mentioned in other Jewish literature? There is also no parallel in other Jewish literature to a Messiah who dies and is raised to immortality, but God clearly had no qualms about causing that to happen. The Bible is quite clear that Jesus was exalted to rule all things, and that Jesus is a human.
Conclusion
Although I wasn’t able to cover every single verse and argument used by Bowman and Komoszewski in their book, other prooftexts used by them are refuted in my other blog posts (see especially here). All of the arguments in this book essentially boil down to the following:
Premise 1. Jesus has attribute X / performs deed X.
Premise 2. Only God can have attribute X / perform deed X.
Conclusion. Jesus is God.
In every single case, the argument flounders because either Premise 1 or 2 is simply unsupported by Scripture. In the example of their ‘argument from creation,’ the Bible is quite clear that God created the universe alone, but scriptural support for Jesus being involved in the original creation is scanty and disputed. Whereas in the case of the ‘argument from worship,’ the authors of the New Testament state in no uncertain terms that Jesus should be worshipped, but the Bible nowhere states that only God should be worshipped.
Everything considered, this book failed to convince me that “Jesus is God,” whatever that even means. But as always, you should decide for yourself whether their arguments or my rebuttals were more persuasive. Did you find the arguments in this book convincing?
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[1] Robert M. Bowman and J. Ed Komoszewski, Putting Jesus in His Place: The Case for the Deity of Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 2007).
[2] Kid. 41b.
[3] Gen. 42:6; 43:26; 49:8; Exod. 18:7; Num. 22:31; Josh. 5:14; Ruth 2:10; 1 Sam. 20:14; 24:8; 25:23, 41; 28:14; 2 Sam. 1:2; 9:6, 8; 14:4, 22, 33; 15:5; 18:21; 18:28; 24:20; 1 Kgs. 1:16, 23, 31, 53; 2:19; 2 Kgs. 2:15; 4:37; 1 Chron. 21:21; 29:20; 2 Chron. 24:17; Psa. 45:11; 72:11; Isa. 60:14; Rev. 3:9.
[4] 1 Chron. 29:20; Psa. 72:11; see my earlier post “Davidic Christology and the human Messiah”.
[5] Exod. 20:4-5; 23:24; 32:7-8; 34:14; Lev. 26:1; Deut. 4:15-19; 5:8-9; 8:19; 11:16; 17:3; Judg. 2:12; 2 Kgs. 17:35-36; 2 Chron. 7:19-22; Psa. 81:9; Isa. 2:8; 44:9-20; Jer. 1:16; 13:10; 25:6; Zeph. 1:4-5; Matt. 4:8-10; Luke 4:5-8; Rev. 9:20; 19:10; 22:8-9 cf. Acts 10:25-26.
[6] John 1:18; 12:45; 14:7-10; 2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:16; Heb. 1:3.
[7] Sending + purpose statements spoken by or about human prophets include Exod 3:13; Num. 16:28; Deut. 34:11; 1 Sam. 15:1; 16:2, 5; 25:32; 2 Chron. 24:19; Isa. 61:1; Jer. 26:12, 15; 42:21; Matt. 21:34 (parable); and John 1:6-7.
[8] For example, see 2 Sam. 12:7; 1 Kgs. 14:4-6; 2 Kgs. 5:19-27; Dan. 2:27-30; esp. Luke 7:39.
[9] See especially Murray J. Harris, Jesus as God: The New Testament Use of Theos in Reference to Jesus (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992): 270-275.
[10] Matt. 22:44; 26:64; Mark 13:36; 14:62; 16:19; Luke 20:42-43; 22:69; Acts 2:34-35; 5:31; 7:55-56; Rom. 8:34; 1 Cor. 15:25; Eph. 1:20; Col. 3:1; Heb. 1:3, 13; 8:1; 10:12-13; 12:2; 1 Pet. 3:22-24.
[11] The New Testament repeatedly tells us that God the Father created the universe, and distinguishes this work from Jesus; for example, see Mark 10:6; 13:19; Acts 4:24, 30; 17:24, 31; Heb. 2:10; and Rev. 4:11.
[12] For example, see J. R. Daniel Kirk and Stephen L. Young, “‘I Will Set His Hand to the Sea’: Psalm 88:26 LXX and Christology in Mark,” Journal of Biblical Literature 133, no. 2 (2014), 333-340.
[13] Eph. 1:20; Col. 3:1; Heb. 1:3; 8:1; 12:2; 1 Pet. 3:22; Rev. 3:21; also cf. Rom. 14:10 and 1 Cor. 5:10.
[14] See the exalted position of Enoch/Metatron in 3 Enoch as an example.
Jesus, the Davidic king, in the New Testament
From the very first verse of the New Testament, we are told who Jesus is: “the Messiah, the son of David, the son of Abraham” (Matt. 1:1). At the very end of the New Testament, we read that Jesus is “the root and descendant of David” (Rev. 22:16). He is the anointed one (Messiah/Christ) of God and ideal Davidic king. Therefore, we should expect that he shares the prerogatives of the Davidic kings of the Old Testament, presumably to an even greater degree. And this is, in fact, precisely what we find all throughout the New Testament.
“You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God.” (Matt. 16:16)
The beginning of the gospel of Jesus, the Messiah, the Son of God. (Mark 1:1)
“He will be great, and be called ‘Son of the Most High,’ and the Lord God will give him the throne of his ancestor David; and he will reign over the house of Jacob for the ages, and there will be no end of his kingdom... the holy spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; for this reason also the holy-begotten one will be called ‘Son of God.’” (Luke 1:32-33, 35)
Nathaniel answered, “Rabbi, you are the Son of God; you are the king of Israel!” (John 1:49)
Now these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name. (John 20:31)
“God has fulfilled this for us, their children, by raising up Jesus, as it is written in the second psalm: ‘You are My Son; today I have begotten you.’” (Acts 13:33)
The Son of [God] came from the seed of David, according to the flesh, and was appointed the Son of God with power, according to the spirit, by resurrection from the dead: Jesus the Messiah our Lord. (Rom. 1:3-4)
In these passages, Jesus is referred to as “the Son of God,” just as the Davidic kings of the Old Testament were (2 Sam. 7:14; 1 Chron. 28:5; Psa. 2:6-7; 89:20, 26). The authors of the New Testament considered this title to be equivalent to “Messiah” (anointed one) and “king of Israel” since these titles are placed in parallel with one another in many passages, including the ones cited above (Matt. 16:16, 20; 26:63; Mark 1:1; 14:61; Luke 4:41; 22:67, 70; John 1:49; 11:27; 19:7, 12, 21; Acts 9:20, 22; Gal. 2:20; Eph. 4:13; 1 John 2:22; 5:1, 5; 2 John 9).
According to Luke 1:32-35, Jesus is called Son of God for two reasons: first because he rules over the throne of David, and also because of his virginal conception. There are three stages of Jesus’ sonship in the New Testament: he was prophesied to be the (future) Son of God at his conception (Luke 1:32-35); marked out as the Son of God at his baptism (Mark 1:10-11; Matt. 16:16); and finally appointed to be the Son of God at his resurrection and exaltation (Acts 2:36; 13:33; Rom. 1:4; Heb. 1:3-5).
After Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, in the days of king Herod, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem saying, “Where is the one who was born king of the Jews? For we saw his star in its rising, and have come to worship him.” (Matt. 2:2)
Then those who were in the boat worshipped him, saying, “Truly you are the Son of God!” (Matt. 14:33)
Yet when God again brings the Firstborn into the world, He says, “Let all the angels of God worship him.” (Heb. 1:6)
There are only a few instances in the New Testament where Jesus is said to be worshipped (proskuneo), and it’s unclear whether proskuneo should be translated “worship” or simply “bow down” in each instance. However, as these three passages show, Jesus is given proskuneo not because he is God, but because he is “king of the Jews,” “Son of God,” and “Firstborn.” Each of these is a title of the Davidic king, who in the Old Testament was worshipped alongside Yahweh (1 Chron. 29:20; Psa. 2:11-12; 72:11). This further serves to connect Jesus with the Davidic kings of the Old Testament.
Be filled with the spirit, speaking to each other in psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs, singing and making music in your hearts to the Lord, always giving thanks to the God and Father for all things in the name of our Lord Jesus the Messiah. (Eph. 5:18-20)
Then I heard every creature in heaven, and upon the earth, and under the earth, and in the sea, and everything that is in them, singing, “To the One sitting upon the throne, and to the Lamb, be blessing and honor and glory and dominion, for the ages of the ages!” And the four living creatures kept saying, “Amen.” And the elders bowed down and worshipped. (Rev. 5:13-14)
In both of these passages, songs of praise are directed toward Jesus. There are also Christological hymns throughout the New Testament (e.g., John 1:14-18; Phil. 2:5-11; Col. 1:15-20). This is in agreement with the Old Testament practice of directing songs of praise to the Davidic king (Psa. 45:1). Furthermore, Rev. 5:13-14 may be a direct allusion to 1 Chron. 29:20; in both instances, an assembly “bows down and worships” God and the Davidic king together.
Then Jesus said to Thomas, “Put your finger here and see my hands; and bring your hand, and put it into my side; and do not disbelieve, but believe.” Thomas said to him, “My Lord and my God!” (John 20:27-28)
Yet unto the Son it says, “Your throne, O God, is permanent, and the scepter of righteousness is the scepter of your kingdom. You have loved righteousness and hated wickedness; therefore God, your God, has anointed you with the oil of joy above your companions.” (Heb. 1:8-9)
These are the only two passages in the New Testament where Jesus is unambiguously referred to as “God” (theos). Like the Davidic kings of the Old Testament, he is able to be called “God” as he is the authorized representative of God (Psa. 45:6; Isa. 9:6; Zech. 12:8). In fact, Hebrews 1:8-9 is a direct quotation of Psalm 45:6-7. However, in both instances, it is clear that Jesus, despite being called “God,” is not actually God Himself, because he was anointed by God and God is still his God (John 20:17, 31; Heb. 1:9). Instead, he is called “God” because he is God’s representative.
And the word became flesh and tented among us, and we beheld his glory, the glory as of a unique one from a father, full of grace and truth... For the law was given through Moses, but grace and truth came through Jesus the Messiah. (John 1:14, 17)
...we see Jesus, who was “made a little lower than the angels,” now crowned with glory and honor because he suffered death, so that by God’s grace he should experience death for everyone. (Heb. 2:9)
Jesus is said to have been given four different attributes of God: grace, truth, glory, and honor. These are the same four attributes (chesed, emet, hod, hadar) which were said in the Old Testament to have been given to the Davidic king (Psa. 21:5; 45:3; 89:14, 24).
And [Jesus] woke up, rebuked the wind and said to the sea, “Be silent! Be still!” Then the wind ceased, and there was a dead calm. He said to them, “Why are you afraid? Have you still no faith?” And they were filled with great fear and said to one another, “Who is this, that even the wind and the sea obey him?” (Mark 4:39-41)
When evening came, the boat was out on the sea, and [Jesus] was alone on the land. When he saw that they were straining at the oars against an adverse wind, he came toward them early in the morning, walking on the sea. He intended to pass them by. But when they saw him walking on the sea, they thought it was a ghost and cried out, for they all saw him and were terrified. But immediately he spoke to them and said, “Take heart, it is I; do not be afraid.” Then he got into the boat with them, and the wind ceased. (Mark 6:47-51)
These passages display Jesus' power over the sea. This is often taken to be a demonstration of his divinity, but it is more likely an allusion to Psalm 89:9, 25, in which David is given power to still the waters of the sea when they rise up. [1] This shows the extent to which God has shared his authority with His Messiah, even giving him power over nature.
“For the Father judges no one, but has given all judgment to the Son... And He gave him authority to execute judgment, because he is the Son of Man... I am not able to do anything of myself, but as I hear, I judge; and my judgment is righteous, because I do not seek my own will, but the will of the One who sent me.” (John 5:22, 27, 30)
“[God] set a day on which He is about to judge the world in righteousness, through a man whom He appointed, having provided confidence to all by raising him from the dead.” (Acts 17:31)
Jesus has been given authority by God to judge the world, just as the Davidic kings of the Old Testament were given authority by God to judge the people of Israel (2 Chron. 9:8; Psa. 72:1). Furthermore, just as Solomon sat down upon God’s throne of judgment, so also Jesus sat on God’s throne of judgment, so that “the judgment seat of Messiah” is equivalent to “the judgment seat of God” (Rom. 14:10; 2 Cor. 5:10).
“We know that this is truly the Messiah, the Savior of the world.” (John 4:42)
“God exalted [Jesus] to His right hand as Leader and Savior, to give repentance to Israel and forgiveness of sins.” (Acts 5:31)
God was in the Messiah reconciling the world to Himself (2 Cor. 5:19)
Jesus, as the Messiah, is the appointed agent through which God accomplished the salvation of the world, similarly to how the Davidic king Solomon was appointed to be savior of the oppressed in Israel (Psa. 72:12-14). It’s evident from Acts 5:31 that Jesus was exalted to become Savior.
The God of our Lord Jesus the Messiah, the Father of glory... exercised this power in the Messiah when He raised him from the dead and seated him at His right hand in the heavenly realms, far above every rule and authority and power and dominion and every name that is named, not only in this age but also in the age to come. (Eph. 1:17, 20-21)
When [the Son] had made purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high, having become so much better than the angels as he has inherited a name superior to theirs. (Heb. 1:3-4)
Jesus the Messiah is at the right hand of God, having gone into heaven, with angels and authorities and powers subjected to him. (1 Pet. 3:21-22)
“I will grant the one who overcomes permission to sit on my throne, just as I also overcame and sat down with my Father on His throne.” (Rev. 3:21)
These passages highlight the extremely exalted state of Jesus following his resurrection, having been given authority over all creation (Matt. 28:18) and subject only to God Himself. The New Testament writers use a Davidic psalm to describe his exaltation, saying that he sits “at the right hand of God,” which was originally said of David (Psalm 110:1). Furthermore, Jesus is said to sit upon God’s throne over the entire creation, just as David and Solomon sat upon God’s throne over Israel (1 Chron. 29:23; 2 Chron. 9:8). Nonetheless, Jesus continues to be distinguished from God, who is still his God (Eph. 1:17; Rev. 3:12).
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[1] J. R. Daniel Kirk and Stephen L. Young, "'I Will Set His Hand to the Sea': Psalm 88:26 LXX and Christology in Mark," Journal of Biblical Literature 133, no. 2 (2014), 333-340.
And Yahweh said, “This is the one; anoint him.” So Samuel took the horn full of oil and anointed him in the presence of his brothers. The spirit of Yahweh came upon David from that day onward. (1 Sam. 16:12-13)
David the son of Jesse, the man highly exalted, the anointed one of the God of Jacob, the sweet psalmist of Israel. (2 Sam. 23:1)
David was anointed by God, making him an anointed one or messiah (mashiach; Greek christos). David is also referred to as messiah two other times in 2 Samuel (19:21; 22:51). This highlights his exalted status, while also distinguishing him from the God who anointed and appointed him.
“Yahweh declares to you [David] that He Himself will make you a dynasty. When your days are fulfilled and you lie down with your ancestors, I will raise up your descendant, one of your own sons, and I will establish his kingdom. He will build a house for My name, and I will permanently establish the throne of his kingdom. I will be his Father, and he will be my son. When he sins, I will correct him with the rod of men, and the blows of the sons of men. But My kindness will not be removed from him as it was from Saul, whom I removed from before you. Your house and your kingdom will stand before Me permanently; your throne will stand permanently.” (2 Sam. 7:11-16)
“And I will establish him in My house and My kingdom permanently, and his throne will stand permanently.“ (1 Chron. 17:14)
King David stood up and said... “Of all my sons — for Yahweh has given me many sons — He has chosen my son Solomon to sit on the throne of Yahweh’s kingdom over Israel. And He said to me, ‘Solomon, your son, is the one who will build My house and My courts, for I have chosen him to be My son, and I will be his Father.’” (1 Chron. 28:5-6)
In these passages, Yahweh promises David that He will establish his dynasty through one of his sons, Solomon, who will become Yahweh’s own son. This is the basis for the title, “son of God,” which highlights the exalted status of the Davidic king, while also distinguishing him from and subordinating him to God. Furthermore, by comparing 2 Samuel 7 and 1 Chronicles 17, we can see that David’s house and kingdom was considered equivalent to Yahweh’s own house and kingdom.
David said to the whole assembly, “Praise Yahweh, your God!” So the whole assembly praised Yahweh, God of their fathers, and bowed down and worshipped Yahweh and the king. (1 Chron. 29:20)
In this passage, David is worshipped alongside Yahweh, showing the high status to which God had exalted the king. There are numerous other instances where people are said to bow down and/or worship (shachah) before David and his son Solomon (1 Sam. 25:23, 41; 2 Sam. 1:2; 9:6, 8; 14:4, 22, 33; 16:4; 18:28; 24:20; 1 Kgs. 1:16, 23, 31, 53; 1 Chron. 21:21). However, this is the clearest instance of worship of the Davidic king, because both God and the king are said to be worshipped with a single verb, showing that (at least in this instance) they were worshipped in the same way.
Solomon sat upon Yahweh’s throne as king in the place of his father David; he prospered and all of Israel obeyed him. (1 Chron. 29:23)
“May Yahweh, your God, be praised, who delighted in placing you on His throne to be king for Himself. Because your God has loved Israel, to establish them forever, He made you king over them to make fair and right judgments.” (2 Chron. 9:8)
“Now you declare that you will resist the kingdom of Yahweh, which is in the hands of the descendants of David!” (2 Chron. 13:8)
God placed Solomon upon His own throne, to rule over His own kingdom, and gave him the authority to judge. This again highlights the authority and exalted status which was given to the Davidic kings of Israel, as the authorized representatives of Yahweh.
The Davidic king in Psalm 2
Psalm 2 is often taken to be a Messianic prophecy, and it was understood to refer to Jesus in the New Testament (Acts 4:25-28; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev. 2:27; 19:15). However, in its original historical context, it was written for the coronation of the Davidic king. [1] Because it’s attributed to David (Acts 4:25), and written partially from a first-person perspective (Psa. 2:7), this psalm was most likely originally written for David upon his coronation in Jerusalem. In later periods, it was taken to refer to the eschatological Messiah, who is the ideal Davidic king.
The kings of the earth take their stand, and the rulers conspire together, against Yahweh and His anointed one. (v. 2)
Here, the Davidic king is referred to as God’s anointed one or messiah (mashiach; Greek christos). Because the king is the authorized representative of God on earth, to take a stand against the king is also to take a stand against Yahweh, and vice versa.
Then He angrily speaks to them and terrifies them in His rage: “I myself have installed My king on Zion, My holy hill.” I will declare the decree of Yahweh. He said to me, “You are My son; today I have begotten you. Ask Me, and I will give you the nations as your inheritance, and the ends of the earth as your possession.” (vv. 5-8)
The Israelite king becomes the son of Yahweh and is figuratively “begotten” on the day that he is installed as king in Jerusalem. This title establishes the king as subordinate and obedient to God, while also declaring his exalted status and close personal relationship with God. Whereas the title “son of God” was previously only given to Solomon (1 Chron. 28:5), this psalm expands it to all the Davidic kings. During this period, it was common for kings of the Ancient Near East to be described as the “son” of their god, meaning that they ruled on behalf of their god, as his vassal. [2]
Serve Yahweh with fear and rejoice with trembling. Do homage to the son, lest he be angry, and you perish in the way, when his wrath is kindled just a little. Blessed are all those who seek refuge in him. (vv. 11-12)
This section of the psalm establishes both God and the king as worthy of homage, just as in 1 Chronicles 29:20. Moreover, the king as son of God is to be trusted as a refuge, even though elsewhere it is God who should be trusted as a refuge, even by the king himself (e.g., 2 Sam. 22:3, 31; Psa. 5:11; 7:1; 16:1).
The Davidic king in Psalm 45
Like Psalm 2, this psalm is often taken to be a Messianic prophecy, especially because it is cited in the New Testament as referring to the Son (Heb. 1:8-9). However, it’s evident from the psalm itself that it was originally written for the wedding or coronation [3] of a contemporary Israelite king. The king lives in an ivory palace, like the kings of eighth-century Israel (Psalm 45:8 cf. 1 Kgs. 22:39; Amos 3:15), he marries a princess from Tyre (vv. 10-13), and is said to have sons (v. 16); yet none of these things are true of Jesus. Thus, this psalm was written for an Israelite king during the pre-exilic period, most likely Solomon or Ahab. [4] Later it was applied to the Messiah, as the ideal Davidic king.
A Contemplation of the Sons of Korah, a Song of Love. My heart overflows with a beautiful song; I address my verses to the king; my tongue is like the pen of a ready scribe. (v. 1)
This psalm unambiguously establishes that songs of praise can be directed toward the human Davidic king, despite the common assumption that songs of praise should only ever be directed toward God in a monotheistic framework.
Gird your sword upon your thigh, O mighty one, in your glory and your majesty. (v. 3)
Two unique attributes of God, “glory” and “majesty,” are attributed to the Davidic king in this verse (cf. Job 40:10; Psa. 96:6; 104:1; 111:3; 145:5). This is because God has invested the king, who is His authorized representative, with these attributes (Psa. 21:5). Interestingly, these same two attributes are singled out in the New Testament as having been given to Jesus (Heb. 2:9).
Your throne, O God, is permanent; the scepter of your kingdom is a scepter of justice. You have loved justice and hated evil; therefore God, your God, has anointed you with the oil of joy above your companions. (vv. 6-7)
The king, as the authorized representative of God, is given the title “God” (elohim). Despite this exalted title, God is still the king’s God, and his position has been given to him by God, so he is unambiguously subordinate to God. The king has also been anointed by God, making him an anointed one or messiah.
Because he is your lord, worship him. (v. 11)
The king, having been invested with the attributes and title of God, is said to be “lord” of his bride and therefore she is exhorted to worship (shachah) him. This verb can also be translated as “bow down,” as can the Greek equivalent proskuneo which is applied to Jesus in the New Testament.
The Davidic king in Psalm 72
This psalm was originally written by David, as a prayer to God about his son Solomon. This is shown by the fact that the attributed title of this psalm is “Concerning Solomon,” and the end of the psalm states that it is a prayer of David (v. 20). Solomon is called both “the king” and “the king’s son” (v. 1), implying that the psalm is set during his co-regency period when he ruled as king alongside David (1 Kgs. 1).
O God, give the king Your judgments, and the king’s son Your righteousness. He will judge Your people with righteousness and Your poor with justice. (vv. 1-2)
In these verses, David prays for God to give authority to judge to his son Solomon. As God's authorized representative, Solomon has the power to judge Israel using God’s own judgments, as we saw already in 2 Chron. 9:8 where Solomon sits upon Yahweh’s throne of judgment over Israel. This is also another instance in which God invests the king one of His attributes, specifically “righteousness.”
And all kings shall worship before him, and all nations shall serve him. (vv. 10-11)
Solomon is said to be worshipped (shachah) and served (‘abad), using the same verbs that are elsewhere used to describe monotheistic worship of God alone. Exodus 20:5 says, “You shall not worship [shachah] or serve [‘abad] them, for I, Yahweh your God, am a jealous God.” Likewise, “You shall fear Yahweh your God and serve [‘abad] Him only” (Deut. 6:13 cf. Matt. 4:10). Yet the Davidic king is apparently the exception to this rule, because he, in whom God has invested His attributes and judgments, is not only allowed to be worshipped and served but commanded to be worshipped and served.
For he will deliver the needy when they cry out, and the oppressed who have no helper. He will have mercy on the poor and needy, and will save the souls of the needy. He will redeem their souls from violence and oppression, and their life will be precious in his sight. (vv. 12-14)
Here, Solomon is said to be the deliverer of the people of Israel, who saves and redeems their souls (nephesh; Greek psuche). Despite the fact that God is said to be the only Savior (Isa. 43:11), He bestows upon the Davidic king the ability to save, just as He also gives him the authority to judge.
The Davidic king in Psalm 89
Psalm 89:19-37 is explicitly written about David and the pre-exilic dynasty of kings which came from him. However, it also looks forward to the eschatological king who will restore Davidic rule over Israel (vv. 38-51).
Your arm is mighty, Your hand is strong, Your right hand is exalted. Righteousness and judgment are the foundation of Your throne, lovingkindness and truth go before You. (v. 13-14)
“I have found David, My servant; with My holy oil I have anointed him. My hand will support him, and My arm will strengthen him.” (vv. 20-21)
“My truth and lovingkindness will be with him, and in My name his strength will be exalted.” (v. 24)
In this psalm, God invests more of His attributes into the Davidic king, including His lovingkindness (chesed), truth (emet), and exalted strength. Even in his exalted status, David is still distinguished from God, the One who anointed him — thus making him an anointed one or messiah.
You rule over the majesty of the sea; when its waves surge, you still them. (v. 9)
“I will set his hand over the sea, and his right hand over the rivers.” (v. 25)
God shares His authority over the sea with His authorized representative David, showing the extent to which the Davidic king has been exalted.
“He will call out to Me, ‘You are my Father, my God, and the rock of my salvation.’ I will make him My firstborn, the highest of the kings of the earth.” (vv. 26-27)
David, like his son Solomon, is said to be the son of God, in such a close personal relationship with God that he can refer to Him as “my Father.” He is not only the son of God, but the firstborn of God, the most exalted king. Nonetheless, even in his exalted state, God is still David’s God, showing that he is distinguished from and subordinate to God.
The Davidic king in the Prophets
For unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given. The government will be upon his shoulder, and his name is called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace. His dominion will be great, and there will be no end of peace, upon David’s throne and over his kingdom, to order it and establish it with judgment and righteousness, from now and forever. The zeal of Yahweh of hosts will accomplish this. (Isa. 9:6-7)
Many Christians understand this prophecy to be referring to Jesus, but Isaiah is more concerned with issues contemporary in his day (8th century BC). The larger pericope in which this prophecy is set concerns the invasion of Assyria (Isa. 8:1-15; 9:8-10:18). Therefore, the king whose birth is described in Isa. 9:6 must be Hezekiah, through whom God repelled the Assyrian invasion of Judah (Isa. 36-37). Hezekiah is given the title “Mighty God,” reflecting his status as the authorized representative of God (cf. Psa. 45:6-7). However, he is also distinguished from God, in that Yahweh brings about his authority (v. 7).
In that day Yahweh Himself will defend the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and the weakest among them will be like David, and the house of David will be like God, as the messenger [malak] of Yahweh before them. (Zech. 12:8)
This is unambiguously a Messianic prophecy, and it describes a future Davidic king who would be “like God” and “the messenger of Yahweh,” that is, Yahweh’s authorized representative. Just as in Psalm 45:6 and Isaiah 9:6, this shows that the Davidic king (including the eschatological Messiah) was considered “God,” but actually only a representative of God.
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[1] William H. Brownley, “Psalms 1 - 2 as a Coronation Liturgy,” Biblica 52, no. 3 (1971), 321-336; James W. Watts, “Psalm 2 In The Context Of Biblical Theology,” Horizons of Biblical Theology 12 (1990), 74-76.
[2] M. Weinfeld, “The Covenant of Grant in the Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 90, no. 2 (1970), 190-194; A. Yarbro Collins and John J. Collins, King and Messiah as Son of God (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008), 1-24.
[3] For a defense of the coronation interpretation of Psalm 45, see James M. Trotter, “The Genre and Setting of Psalm 45,” Australian Biblical Review 57 (2009), 34-46.
[4] Claude Mariottini, “Jezebel’s Wedding Song — Part 1,” Dr. Claude Mariottini — Professor of Old Testament (blog), 11 December 2007.
Previous: https://universalistheretic.blogspot.com/2023/07/mosaic-christology-and-human-messiah.html
In the last two posts, we saw how Jesus is portrayed in the New Testament in similar ways to Adam and Moses. In his earthly ministry, he was uniquely connected to God’s power and bore God’s glory and name, just like Moses; and in his exaltation, he became the image and glory of God, and the ruler of all things, just as Adam was before he sinned. In this post, we will examine the Messiah’s connection to two other prophets from the Old Testament: Elijah and Elisha. Jesus said that John the Baptist was the new Elijah (Matt. 11:14); by the same token, Jesus himself is the new Elisha, and he does directly compare himself to both of these Israelite prophets (Luke 4:24-27). And as it happens, many of his miracles directly parallel Elisha’s former miracles.
Note: The idea for this series is from J. R. Daniel Kirk’s book A Man Attested by God: The Human Jesus of the Synoptic Gospels, as well as episodes 48 through 55 of Dustin Smith’s Biblical Unitarian Podcast. It wouldn’t have been possible without their extensive research, so please check out their work for a fuller treatment of the high human Christology of the New Testament!
Power over water
One of the miracles which was shared by Elijah, Elisha, and Jesus was the ability to control water:
And Elijah the Tishbite, one of the inhabitants of Gilead, said to Ahab, “As Yahweh God of Israel lives, whom I stand before, there will be neither rain nor dew these years, except by my word.” (1 Kings 17:1)
And Elijah took his cloak and rolled it up, and struck the waters [of the Jordan River], and they were divided here and there, so that the two of them [Elijah and Elisha] crossed over on dry ground. (2 Kings 2:8)
Then the men of the city said to Elisha, “Behold now, the location of this city is good, as my lord sees; but the water is bad and the land is unfruitful.” He said, “Bring me a new jar, and put salt in it.” So they brought it to him. He went out to the spring of water and threw salt in it and said, “Thus says Yahweh: ‘I have purified these waters; there shall not be from there death or unfruitfulness any longer.’” So the waters have been purified to this day, according to the word of Elisha which he spoke. (2 Kings 2:19-22)
[Elisha] said, “Thus says Yahweh: ‘Fill this valley with ditches.’ For thus says Yahweh: ‘You will see neither wind nor rain, but the valley will be filled with water, so that you may drink, and your cattle, and your livestock.’”... And it came to pass in the morning, when the grain offering was offered, that (behold) water came from the direction of Edom and filled the valley. (2 Kings 3:16, 17, 20)
When they came to the Jordan, they cut down trees. But as one was felling a log, his ax head fell into the water; he cried out [to Elisha], “Alas, master! It was borrowed.” Then the man of God said, “Where did it fall?” When he showed him the place, he cut off a stick, and threw it in there, and made the iron float. (2 Kings 6:4-6)
In these passages, Elijah and Elisha demonstrate their power over the water, acting on the authority of Yahweh. They aren’t merely declaring Yahweh’s miracles, but are actually exercising power which has been given to them; both of these prophets say that they are completing these miracles by their own word. Likewise, in the gospel accounts, Jesus performs miracles by controlling water:
And early in the morning he came walking toward them on the sea. But when the disciples saw him walking on the sea, they were terrified, saying, “It is a ghost!” And they cried out in fear. But immediately Jesus spoke to them and said, “Take heart, it is I; do not be afraid.” (Matt. 14:25-27)
A great windstorm arose, and the waves beat into the boat, so that the boat was already being swamped. But [Jesus] was in the stern, asleep on the cushion, and they woke him up and said to him, “Teacher, do you not care that we are perishing?” And waking up, he rebuked the wind and said to the sea, “Be silent! Be still!” Then the wind ceased, and there was a dead calm. (Mark 4:37-39)
Now standing there were six stone water jars for the Jewish rites of purification, each holding twenty or thirty gallons. Jesus said to them, “Fill the jars with water.” And they filled them up to the brim. He said to them, “Now draw some out, and take it to the person in charge of the banquet.” So they took it... the water had become wine (John 2:6-9)
Each of these miracles involving water directly parallel the miracles of Elijah and Elisha. Like the two Israelite prophets, Jesus displays his power over weather events (1 Kings 17:1; 2 Kings 3:16-20; Mark 4:37-39). Jesus causes himself and Peter to walk upon water, similarly to when Elisha caused an ax head to float upon the water (2 Kgs. 6:4-6; Matt. 14:25-31). Finally, he transforms water into another substance, which Elisha also did (2 Kgs. 2:19-22; John 2:6-9). These miracles occur by Jesus’ own word, just as Elijah and Elisha controlled the water by their own word.
Resurrection of the dead
Another miracle shared by Elijah and Elisha was the power to raise the dead. In fact, the only three resurrections recorded in the Old Testament were connected with these two prophets:
[Elijah] cried out to Yahweh, “O Yahweh my God, have you brought calamity even upon the widow with whom I am staying, by killing her son?” Then he stretched himself upon the child three times and cried out to Yahweh, “O Yahweh my God, let this child’s life come into him again.” Yahweh listened to the voice of Elijah; the life of the child came into him again, and he revived. (1 Kings 17:20-22)
When Elisha came into the house, he saw the child lying dead on his bed. So he went in and closed the door on the two of them and prayed to Yahweh. Then he got up on the bed and lay upon the child, putting his mouth upon his mouth, his eyes upon his eyes, and his hands upon his hands, and while he lay bent over him, the flesh of the child became warm. He got down, walked once to and fro in the room, then got up again and bent over him; the child sneezed seven times, and the child opened his eyes. (2 Kings 4:32-35)
As a man was being buried, a marauding band was seen and the man was thrown into the grave of Elisha; as soon as the man touched the bones of Elisha, he came to life and stood on his feet. (2 Kings 13:21)
Likewise, Jesus during his earthly ministry raised three people from the dead, two of them children (Mark 5:35-42; Luke 7:11-17; John 11:38-44). In fact, one of these instances directly parallels the resurrection performed by Elijah in 1 Kings 17:
As he approached the city gate, one who had died was being carried out. He was his mother’s only son, and she was a widow, and with her was a large crowd from the town. When the Lord saw her, he was moved with compassion for her and said to her, “Do not cry.” Then he came forward and touched the bier, and the bearers stopped. And he said, “Young man, I say to you, rise!” The dead man sat up and began to speak, and Jesus gave him to his mother. Then fear seized all the people, and they began glorifying God, saying, “A great prophet has arisen among us!” (Luke 7:12-16)
In both instances, the prophet encounters a widow at the “city gate” (1 Kgs. 17:10; Luke 7:12). The prophet discovers that the widow’s only son has died (1 Kgs. 17:17-20; Luke 7:12). The prophet is moved with compassion for the widow, and commands the child to arise (1 Kgs. 17:20-22; Luke 7:13-15). The witnesses to the miracle conclude that the prophet is truly a prophet of God (1 Kgs. 17:24; Luke 7:16). Clearly, Jesus is intentionally being compared with Elisha here. This shows how much greater a prophet he is than Elisha, because whereas it took Elisha considerable effort to raise the child, Jesus simply spoke and the child was resurrected.
Purifying the unclean
Elisha was also given the power to purify unclean food and disease:
Now it happened, as they were eating the stew, that they cried out and said, “O man of God, there is death in the pot!” They could not eat it. He said, “Then bring some flour.” He threw it into the pot and said, “Serve the people and let them eat.” And there was nothing bad in the pot. (2 Kgs. 4:40, 41)
And Naaman came with his horses and chariots, and halted at the entrance to Elisha’s house. Elisha sent a messenger to him, saying, “Go, wash in the Jordan seven times, and you shall be clean.”... So he went down and immersed himself in the Jordan seven times, according to the word of the man of God; his flesh was restored like the flesh of a young boy, and he was clean. (2 Kgs. 5:9, 10, 14)
Likewise, Jesus had the ability to purify what was unclean:
[Jesus] said to them, “Are you also without understanding? Do you not see that whatever goes into a person from the outside cannot defile, since it does not enter the heart, but the stomach, and goes out into the sewer?” Thus all foods are purified. (Mark 7:18, 19)
On the way to Jerusalem, [Jesus] was going through the region between Samaria and Galilee. As he entered a village, ten men with leprosy approached him. Keeping their distance, they called out, saying, “Jesus, Master, have mercy on us!” When he saw them, he said to them, “Go and show yourselves to the priests.” And as they went, they were made clean. (Luke 17:11-14)
Jesus displays the same powers as Elisha, but to a much greater extent. Whereas Elisha only purified a single stew, and healed one leper, Jesus purified “all foods” [1] and miraculously cleansed ten lepers.
Multiplying food
Another specific miracle that was performed by Elijah and Elisha was multiplying quantities of food:
[The widow] said, “As Yahweh your God lives, I have nothing baked, only a handful of flour in a jar and a little oil in a jug; I am now gathering a couple of sticks so that I may go home and prepare it for myself and my son, that we may eat it and die.”
Elijah said to her, “Do not be afraid; go and do as you have said, but first make me a little cake of it and bring it to me, and afterward make something for yourself and your son. For thus says Yahweh God of Israel: ‘The jar of flour will not be emptied and the jug of oil will not fail, until the day that Yahweh sends rain on the earth.’” She went and did as Elijah said, so that she as well as he and her household ate for many days. The jar of flour was not emptied, neither did the jug of oil fail, according to the word of Yahweh that he spoke by Elijah. (1 Kings 17:12-16)
A man came from Baal-shalishah bringing food from the first fruits to the man of God: twenty loaves of barley and fresh ears of grain in his sack. Elisha said, “Give it to the people and let them eat.” But his servant said, “How can I set this before a hundred people?” So he repeated, “Give it to the people and let them eat, for thus says the Lord: They shall eat and have some left.” He set it before them; they ate and had some left, according to the word of the Lord. (2 Kings 4:42-44)
The same miracle was performed by Jesus on two different occasions:
[Jesus] answered them, “You give them something to eat.” They said to him, “Are we to go and buy two hundred denarii worth of bread and give it to them to eat?” And he said to them, “How many loaves do you have? Go and see.” When they had found out, they said, “Five, and two fish.” Then he ordered them to get all the people to sit down in groups on the green grass. So they sat down in groups of hundreds and of fifties.
Taking the five loaves and the two fish, he looked up to heaven and blessed and broke the loaves and gave them to his disciples to set before the people, and he divided the two fish among them all. And all ate and were filled, and they took up twelve baskets full of broken pieces and of the fish. Those who had eaten the loaves numbered five thousand men. (Mark 6:37-44)
The disciples said to him, “Where are we to get enough bread in the desert to feed so great a crowd?” Jesus asked them, “How many loaves do you have?” They said, “Seven, and a few small fish.” Then ordering the crowd to sit down on the ground, he took the seven loaves and the fish, and after giving thanks he broke them and gave them to the disciples, and the disciples gave them to the crowds. And all of them ate and were filled, and they took up the broken pieces left over, seven baskets full. Those who had eaten were four thousand men, besides women and children. (Matt. 15:33-38)
Again, he performed the same miracle as Elijah and Elisha, but with fifty times more people. This deliberately identifies Jesus as a prophet greater than any who came before him.
Extending physical presence
Finally, one last miracle which was uniquely shared by Elisha and Jesus was their ability to extend their physical presence into far off locations. Elisha displays this power when talking to his servant Gehazi:
He went in and stood before his master, and Elisha said to him, “Where have you been, Gehazi?” He answered, “Your servant has not gone anywhere at all.” But he said to him, “Did I not go with you in my heart when someone left his chariot to meet you? Is this a time to accept silver and clothing, olive orchards and vineyards, sheep and oxen, and male and female slaves? Therefore the skin disease of Naaman shall cling to you and to your descendants forever.” So he left his presence diseased, as white as snow. (2 Kings 5:25-27)
According to this passage, Elisha ‘went with Gehazi in his heart’ when he scammed Naaman out of two talents of silver (2 Kgs. 5:20-24). This clearly implies something more than just being with him ‘in spirit,’ since Elisha knew exactly what Gehazi had been doing; he must have miraculously extended his physical presence so that he was present with Gehazi. Likewise, Jesus in the gospels is able to extend his bodily presence to be with his disciples:
“For where two or three are gathered in my name, I am there among them.” (Matt. 18:20)
“And behold, I am with you always, even until the end of the age.” (Matt. 28:20)
Whereas Elisha only extended his physical presence in one instance, Jesus is continually extending his presence to be with his disciples. This occurs miraculously by the power of the holy spirit, which connects believers to Jesus and his teachings (John 14:26; 16:13; Rom. 8:9, 10; Eph. 3:16, 17).
Conclusion
Many of Jesus’ miracles recorded in the gospel accounts directly parallel the miracles performed by the prophets Elijah and Elisha in the Old Testament. These Israelite prophets were humans empowered by God to an incredible degree, and Jesus performed miracles even greater than theirs. Nonetheless, this does not remove him out of the realm of so-called ‘mere’ humanity. In fact, according to Acts 2:22, it was God who performed these miracles through the man Jesus, to show Israel that he was the true Messiah.
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[1] There is debate as to whether Mark 7:1-19 implies that Jesus purified all unclean meat, or merely all ceremonially defiled meat; either way, he was still purifying what was unclean.
